At C1 level, grammar isn’t just about forming correct sentences—it’s about refining how ideas are expressed for style, clarity, and impact. This unit focuses on advanced grammar and discourse techniques that help you sound more natural, more persuasive, and more sophisticated in both speech and writing.
You’ll explore structures like inversion, cleft sentences, and complex conditionals to add emphasis, variety, and precision to your communication. You’ll also learn how to express subtle meaning with past modal verbs and narrative devices, and how to improve flow and cohesion through nominalisation, ellipsis, and parallelism. Each section is designed to deepen your control of English at a structural level—so you can express complex ideas with both confidence and elegance.

23.1 INVERSION FOR EMPHASIS (NEVER HAVE I...)
Objective:
To learn how to use inversion structures for emphasis in formal, written, or dramatic spoken English, especially with negative adverbials like NEVER, RARELY, NOT ONLY, and HARDLY.

🧠 WHAT IS INVERSION?
Inversion means changing the normal word order—placing the auxiliary verb before the subject—to emphasize a specific part of the sentence.
Normal: I have never seen such a beautiful view.
Inverted: Never have I seen such a beautiful view.
This structure is used for:
•    Stylistic emphasis
•    Formal writing and speech
•    Dramatic or rhetorical effect

🔄 COMMON INVERSION TRIGGERS
These expressions often trigger inversion when placed at the beginning of a sentence:
Trigger    Example
Never    Never have I felt so tired.
Rarely / Seldom    Rarely do we see this kind of honesty.
Hardly / Barely / Scarcely    Hardly had I arrived when the phone rang.
Not only... but also    Not only did he win, but he also broke the record.
No sooner... than    No sooner had she left than it started raining.
Little (meaning “not much”)    Little did they know what was coming.
Only then / only later / only when    Only then did I realize my mistake.
✅ Inversion usually involves an auxiliary verb (do/does/did or have/has/had), or a modal verb.

🧱 INVERSION PATTERNS
WITH PRESENT OR PAST SIMPLE

Never have I felt so relaxed.
Rarely does she complain.
Use do/does/did for inversion in these tenses.
WITH PAST PERFECT

Hardly had he spoken when she interrupted.
No sooner had I sat down than the bell rang.
Use had + subject + past participle
WITH MODALS

Not only will she attend the meeting, but she will also present.
Only by working hard can you succeed.

⚠ COMMON MISTAKES
Mistake    Correction    Why?
Never I have seen this.    Never have I seen this.    Auxiliary goes before the subject
Hardly I arrived when…    Hardly had I arrived when…    Use “had” for past perfect inversion
Not only he works fast…    Not only does he work fast…    Use “does” in present simple inversion

✍ PRACTICE: TRANSFORM THE SENTENCES
1.    I have never tried sushi before.
→ Never have I tried sushi before.
2.    He rarely goes out on weekdays.
→ Rarely does he go out on weekdays.
3.    She had just closed the door when the phone rang.
→ Hardly had she closed the door when the phone rang.

💬 EXAMPLE DIALOG
Liam: Did you enjoy the performance?
Noa: It was amazing. Never have I seen anything like it!
Liam: Right? And not only did they sing, but they danced too.
Noa: Only then did I understand how powerful that final scene was.

23.2 CLEFT SENTENCES (WHAT I LOVE IS…, IT WAS JOHN WHO…)
Objective:
To use cleft sentences to give emphasis or focus in both spoken and written English, helping you structure sentences in a more sophisticated and impactful way.

🧠 WHAT IS A CLEFT SENTENCE?
A cleft sentence splits a simple sentence into two clauses to highlight one specific part of the message—what you want the listener or reader to focus on.
Basic: I love this city.
Cleft: What I love is this city.
It’s especially useful when you want to:
•    Emphasize a subject, object, or action
•    Add variety to sentence structure
•    Sound more formal or expressive

🔹 COMMON TYPES OF CLEFT SENTENCES
1. WHAT-CLEFTS

Used to emphasize an action or idea
Structure    Example
What + subject + verb + be + focus    What I need is a break.
What + happened + was + clause    What happened was that he missed the train.
✅ Often used in spoken English for storytelling or clarification.

2. IT-CLEFTS

Used to emphasize a person, thing, time, or place
Structure    Example
It + be + emphasized part + who/that/when/where…    It was Sarah who called you.
    It’s the weekend when we usually relax.
    It was in Paris that we first met.
✅ The emphasized part goes after “It was…” or “It is…”

3. ALL-CLEFTS (LESS COMMON BUT USEFUL)

Used to emphasize limits or minimum expectations
Structure    Example
All + subject + verb + be…    All I want is some peace and quiet.
All + subject + verb + is to…    All you have to do is wait.

🔄 TRANSFORMING SIMPLE SENTENCES
Basic Sentence    Cleft Sentence
He met her in Spain.    It was in Spain that he met her.
I enjoy working with you.    What I enjoy is working with you.
The problem is your attitude.    What the problem is, is your attitude.
He fixed the bike.    It was he who fixed the bike.

⚠ COMMON MISTAKES
Mistake    Correction    Why?
Is Sarah who called.    It is Sarah who called.    Needs “It” at the start
What do I want is peace.    What I want is peace.    Don’t invert in cleft clause
It was called by Sarah.    It was Sarah who called.    Avoid passive if subject is the focus

✍ PRACTICE TASK
Transform the following into cleft sentences:
1.    She told me the truth.
→ It was she who told me the truth.
2.    We need a solution.
→ What we need is a solution.
3.    He left because of the noise.
→ What made him leave was the noise.

💬 EXAMPLE DIALOG
Emily: I can’t believe he lied.
Tom: What upsets me is that he didn’t even apologize.
Emily: Exactly. It was his reaction that shocked me the most.
Tom: All I wanted was an honest answer.

23.3 FUTURE PERFECT AND FUTURE CONTINUOUS

Objective:
To understand and use the future perfect and future continuous tenses to describe actions that will be completed or in progress at a specific time in the future.

🔹 FUTURE PERFECT
🧱 STRUCTURE
will have + past participle
Subject    will have    Past Participle    Example
I / You / He / We    will have    finished / done / left    She will have graduated by June.
📌 USE
To talk about actions that will be completed before a specific point in the future.
By this time next year, I will have saved enough to travel abroad.
They will have finished the project before the deadline.
🧠 TIME EXPRESSIONS COMMONLY USED
•    by tomorrow / by next week / by the time…
•    before / in two years / by then
✅ Use it when you want to project completion into the future.

🔹 FUTURE CONTINUOUS
🧱 STRUCTURE
will be + verb-ing
Subject    will be    Verb-ing    Example
I / You / He / We    will be    working / studying / driving    At 10 a.m., I will be teaching.
📌 USE
To talk about actions that will be in progress at a specific moment in the future.
This time tomorrow, we will be flying to New York.
She will be working all weekend.
It emphasizes duration or future routine.

🔄 COMPARISON
Situation    Future Perfect    Future Continuous
Focus on completion    He will have finished the book by Friday.    —
Focus on activity in progress    —    He will be reading the book on Friday afternoon.
Planning ahead    We’ll have moved by June.    We’ll be living in Madrid by then.
⚠ COMMON MISTAKES
Mistake    Correction    Why?
She will has finished.    She will have finished.    Use "have" not "has" after "will"
We will be go.    We will be going.    Use verb + -ing for future continuous
I will have eating.    I will have eaten.    Future perfect uses past participle

✍ PRACTICE TASK
Complete the following sentences:
1.    By next month, I ________ (complete) the course.
→ will have completed
2.    At 8 p.m., they ________ (have) dinner.
→ will be having
3.    She ________ (finish) the report by the time the meeting starts.
→ will have finished
4.    This time tomorrow, I ________ (relax) on the beach.
→ will be relaxing

💬 EXAMPLE DIALOG
Lucas: Will you be home tomorrow night?
Sophie: No, I’ll be working late. I have a deadline.
Lucas: Oh right. Will you have finished the presentation by Friday?
Sophie: Hopefully. If I stay focused, I’ll have completed most of it by Thursday.

23.4 PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS AND NARRATIVE DEVICES
Objective:
To use the past perfect continuous for describing ongoing past actions before a point in the past, and to apply narrative devices that improve storytelling and cohesion in written or spoken English.

🔹 PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
🧱 STRUCTURE
had been + verb-ing
Subject    had been    Verb-ing    Example
I / You / He / We    had been    working / waiting / living    She had been studying for hours before the exam started.
📌 USE
To describe an action that was in progress for a period of time before another action or point in the past.
He had been working all day when I called him.
They had been waiting for over an hour before the bus arrived.
✅ Emphasizes duration or cause and effect of a past situation.
🧠 TIME EXPRESSIONS OFTEN USED
•    for / since
•    before / when
•    until / by the time

🔄 PAST PERFECT SIMPLE VS. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
Past Perfect Simple    Past Perfect Continuous
He had finished work before dinner.    He had been working all day before dinner.
Focus on result    Focus on duration/process
Completed action    Ongoing action up to the past

⚠ COMMON MISTAKES
Mistake    Correction    Why?
He had being working.    He had been working.    Wrong form of "been"
They was been waiting.    They had been waiting.    Use "had", not "was"
I had wait since 5.    I had been waiting since 5.    Use continuous for duration

🧩 NARRATIVE DEVICES FOR STORYTELLING
🗓 1. TIME MARKERS
Help structure your story
•    Suddenly, Just then, Eventually, A few moments later, By the time…

💥 2. TENSION BUILDERS
Create suspense or progression
•    What nobody knew was…
•    It had all started when…
•    Little did I know…

🧭 3. FLASHBACK SIGNALS
Introduce events from the past
•    I remembered that…
•    Looking back, I realized…
•    Earlier that day…

🔁 4. SEQUENCING EVENTS
Maintain flow
•    At first, Then, Meanwhile, After that, Finally

🛠 PRACTICE TASK
Write a short story (100–150 words) beginning with:
“It had been raining for hours when…”
Include:
•    At least one past perfect continuous structure
•    One or more narrative devices
•    Logical event sequence

💬 EXAMPLE
It had been raining for hours when I finally arrived at the old house. My shoes were soaked, and my coat clung to me like wet paper. Just then, a loud creak echoed through the hallway. I had been hearing strange sounds since I entered, but this one made me freeze. What nobody told me was that I wasn’t the first person to return that night.

23.5 COMPLEX CONDITIONALS AND HYPOTHETICALS
Objective:
To master the use of advanced conditional structures and hypothetical language for discussing unreal, imagined, or alternative past and future situations.

🔄 TYPES OF COMPLEX CONDITIONALS
🔹 MIXED CONDITIONALS
Used when the condition and result refer to different times (e.g. past → present or past → future).
1. PAST → PRESENT RESULT
Structure    Example
If + past perfect, would + base verb    If I had studied medicine, I would be a doctor now.
✅ The action didn't happen in the past, and now the result is different.
2. PAST → FUTURE RESULT
Structure    Example
If + past perfect, would + be + verb-ing    If he had booked earlier, he would be flying first class tomorrow.

🔹 HYPOTHETICAL LANGUAGE (SOFTENING, SPECULATING)
Used to express uncertainty, imagination, or diplomatic suggestions.
Expression    Use    Example
I wish / If only + past simple    Unreal present    I wish I had more free time.
I wish / If only + past perfect    Unreal past    If only I had taken that job.
It’s time + past simple    Suggestion    It’s time we left.
I’d rather + subject + past simple    Preference    I’d rather you didn’t smoke here.
Suppose / Imagine / What if…?    Hypothetical    What if we moved to another city?

🔁 SUMMARY OF ADVANCED CONDITIONAL PATTERNS
Type    Structure    Example
2nd    If + past simple, would + base verb    If I had more time, I would travel.
3rd    If + past perfect, would have + past participle    If I had known, I would have come.
Mixed    If + past perfect, would + base verb    If you had told me, I would know now.

⚠ COMMON MISTAKES
Mistake    Correction    Why?
If I would have gone, I would see her.    If I had gone, I would see her.    Don't use "would" in the if-clause
I wish I would be there.    I wish I were there.    Use “were” for unreal present
If I studied harder, I would passed.    If I had studied harder, I would have passed.    Wrong tense for past result

💬 EXAMPLE DIALOG
Ava: If I had taken Spanish in school, I’d be fluent by now.
Mason: Same here. And if I hadn’t been so lazy, I would’ve passed the exam.
Ava: I wish we could go back in time.
Mason: Well, we can’t. But what if we started lessons now?

23.6 MODAL VERBS IN THE PAST (SHOULD HAVE, MIGHT HAVE…)
Objective:
To use modal verbs + have + past participle for expressing regret, criticism, possibility, or hypothetical past situations in both spoken and written English.

🔍 STRUCTURE
Modal verb + have + past participle
Modal    Meaning    Example
should have    regret / criticism    I should have studied harder.
shouldn’t have    regret about a wrong action    You shouldn’t have said that.
could have    possibility or ability    We could have won the game.
might have / may have    uncertainty / speculation    She might have missed the train.
must have    deduction / assumption    He must have forgotten the meeting.
can’t have / couldn’t have    strong disbelief    They can’t have finished already.

📌 USES AND MEANINGS
✅ REGRET OR ADVICE (SHOULD/SHOULDN’T HAVE)
•    You should have told me earlier.
•    I shouldn’t have eaten so much cake.

❓ POSSIBILITY AND SPECULATION (MIGHT/COULD/MAY HAVE)
•    They might have taken the wrong bus.
•    He could have been injured.

💡 DEDUCTION OR ASSUMPTION (MUST HAVE)
•    She must have left early. Her car isn’t here.

❌ STRONG NEGATIVE ASSUMPTION (CAN’T HAVE / COULDN’T HAVE)
•    He can’t have written this. The style is too different.

🔄 MODAL VERBS IN PRESENT VS. PAST
Present    Past
should do    should have done
might be    might have been
must be tired    must have been tired
can’t know    can’t have known

⚠ COMMON MISTAKES
Mistake    Correction    Why?
She should studied.    She should have studied.    Use “have + past participle”
He must forgot.    He must have forgotten.    “Forgotten” is past participle
I might went there.    I might have gone there.    Use correct auxiliary

💬 EXAMPLE DIALOG
Jason: I can’t believe I missed the interview.
Anna: You should have set two alarms.
Jason: I know. And I shouldn’t have stayed up so late.
Anna: Don’t worry. They might have another opening soon.
Jason: Really? That must have been what the email was about!

23.7 NOMINALISATION FOR FORMAL STYLE
Objective:
To use nominalisation—turning verbs or adjectives into nouns—to make your writing more formal, concise, and impersonal, especially in reports, essays, and academic texts.

🧠 WHAT IS NOMINALISATION?
Nominalisation is the process of converting a verb, adjective, or clause into a noun form, allowing for:
•    More formal tone
•    Greater objectivity
•    Tighter structure in academic and professional writing
Informal: People complained about the noise.
Formal: There were several complaints about the noise.

🔄 EXAMPLES OF NOMINALISATION
Verb / Adjective    Noun Form (Nominalised)
decide    decision
fail    failure
improve    improvement
responsible    responsibility
possible    possibility
arrive    arrival
grow    growth
discuss    discussion

🔧 HOW TO USE IT IN SENTENCES
🔹 REPLACE VERBS WITH NOUNS
Informal    Formal (with nominalisation)
We improved the system.    There was an improvement in the system.
The team analysed the data.    The analysis of the data was conducted.
They agreed on a strategy.    An agreement on the strategy was reached.
✅ Notice how the subject often becomes less personal or is removed entirely.

✍ USEFUL PATTERNS
The [noun] of [noun/verb-ing]...
→ The success of the campaign surprised us.
There was a [noun] in…
→ There was a rise in fuel prices.
[Noun] is necessary for…
→ Clarification is necessary for all participants.

⚠ COMMON MISTAKES
Mistake    Correction    Why?
The decide of the group…    The decision of the group…    Use correct noun form
A grow in demand…    A growth in demand…    “Grow” is a verb, not a noun
Discuss of the problem…    Discussion of the problem…    Use noun form without “of” if not needed

💬 EXAMPLE PARAGRAPH (WITH NOMINALISATION)
The implementation of new policies resulted in a noticeable improvement in team performance. Furthermore, the evaluation of last quarter’s results led to the identification of key areas for growth. A final decision on restructuring is expected next month.

23.8 ELLIPSIS, SUBSTITUTION AND PARALLEL STRUCTURES
Objective:
To improve cohesion and style in writing and speaking by using ellipsis (omission), substitution (replacement), and parallel structures (balanced sentence patterns).

🔹 1. ELLIPSIS (OMISSION)
Ellipsis means leaving out words that are understood from context, to avoid repetition and make the sentence more concise.
Example    Explanation
She can play the guitar, and he can too. → (play the guitar is omitted)    
I’ve read the article, but she hasn’t. → (read the article is omitted)    
Do you want coffee or tea? — Tea, please. → (I want tea is implied)    
✅ Common in both spoken and written English
✅ Often follows auxiliary verbs, conjunctions, or short answers

🔹 2. SUBSTITUTION
Substitution uses a short word or phrase to replace a longer expression mentioned earlier.
Word    Used for…    Example
do / does / did    actions    He enjoys hiking. I do too.
so    clauses / statements    She passed the test. I think so.
one / ones    nouns    I prefer the blue shirt. The red one is too bright.
not    negative repetition    Some students passed, some did not.
✅ Prevents repetition
✅ Keeps the focus on new information

🔄 ELLIPSIS VS. SUBSTITUTION
Technique    Example
Ellipsis    I love sushi, and my brother does too. (loves sushi is omitted)
Substitution    I prefer the old version. This one is confusing. (one = version)
    
🔹 3. PARALLEL STRUCTURES
Parallelism means using the same grammatical form in a list or structure to make writing clearer and more elegant.
Non-parallel    Parallel
She likes dancing, to sing, and jogs.    She likes dancing, singing, and jogging.
The job requires attention, accuracy, and to be creative.    The job requires attention, accuracy, and creativity.
✅ Use the same tense, form, or structure in a list, comparison, or sentence with “and”, “or”, or “but”.

⚠ COMMON MISTAKES
Mistake    Correction    Why?
She likes cooking, to swim, and jogging.    She likes cooking, swimming, and jogging.    Mixed forms
I think yes.    I think so.    Use “so” for substitution
They read the book, and we read the book too.    They read the book, and we did too.    Use ellipsis or substitution

💬 EXAMPLE PARAGRAPH (USING ALL THREE)
I enjoy writing, editing, and publishing content online. My sister does too, although she prefers fiction while I focus on non-fiction. We started our blogs last year, and since then, she’s improved faster than I have. Her style is unique, clear, and engaging—everything a good writer should be.

23.9 ADVANCED SENTENCE COMBINING TECHNIQUES
Objective:
To improve writing fluency and sophistication by using advanced sentence combination techniques, reducing repetition and creating more varied, natural-sounding structures.

🔧 WHY COMBINE SENTENCES?
Combining short, simple sentences helps:
•    Avoid repetition
•    Improve cohesion and flow
•    Create stylistic variety
•    Emphasize relationships between ideas (contrast, cause, time…)

🔹 TECHNIQUE 1: USING COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
and, but, or, so, for, nor, yet
Simple    Combined
She loves books. She buys many.    She loves books, and she buys many.
He was tired. He kept working.    He was tired, but he kept working.
✅ Use for equal and related ideas

🔹 TECHNIQUE 2: USING SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS
because, although, when, if, since, even though, while, as soon as, unless
Simple    Combined
She was late. She missed the bus.    She was late because she missed the bus.
I will call you. I finish the task.    I will call you when I finish the task.
✅ Use to show cause/effect, time, contrast, condition

🔹 TECHNIQUE 3: USING RELATIVE CLAUSES
Use who, which, that, where, whose to combine and describe
Simple    Combined
The woman is a doctor. She helped me.    The woman who helped me is a doctor.
I read a book. It was interesting.    I read a book that was interesting.
✅ Adds information without repeating the subject

🔹 TECHNIQUE 4: USING PARTICIPIAL PHRASES
Use present or past participles to reduce clauses:
Clause    Reduced
While he was walking home, he saw a cat.    Walking home, he saw a cat.
The window that was broken is now fixed.    The broken window is now fixed.
✅ More concise, natural, and academic.

🔹 TECHNIQUE 5: USING APPOSITIVES
Add non-defining information using commas:
Original    Appositive
My friend is an artist. Her name is Lea.    My friend, Lea, is an artist.
    
⚠ COMMON MISTAKES
Mistake    Correction    Why?
He is smart, he wins everything.    He is smart, so he wins everything.    Use conjunction to connect
The book was boring. I read it.    I read a book that was boring.    Combine with relative clause
Eating lunch. I saw a friend.    While eating lunch, I saw a friend.    Need a subject reference
        
💬 EXAMPLE PARAGRAPH (WITH COMBINED SENTENCES)
Sarah, who works in marketing, is one of the most creative people I know. Always thinking ahead, she brings fresh ideas to every project. Her latest campaign, which launched last week, has already received excellent feedback. Because of her hard work, the company has grown significantly.

23.10 UNIT 23 REVIEW
🧠 UNIT SUMMARY
In this unit, you’ve explored advanced grammar and discourse structures to express ideas with greater clarity, emphasis, and fluency. These tools are key for sophisticated writing, speaking, and academic communication.

🔄 KEY TAKEAWAYS BY SECTION
23.1 Inversion for Emphasis
•    Emphasize with inversion: NEVER HAVE I SEEN… / NOT ONLY DID HE…
•    Common triggers: NEVER, RARELY, NO SOONER, HARDLY, LITTLE, ONLY THEN
23.2 Cleft Sentences
•    Add focus with: WHAT I NEED IS… / IT WAS JOHN WHO…
•    Highlight different sentence elements (subject, object, time, place)
23.3 Future Perfect and Future Continuous
•    FUTURE PERFECT: action completed before a point → I WILL HAVE FINISHED
•    FUTURE CONTINUOUS: action in progress at a point → I WILL BE WORKING
23.4 Past Perfect Continuous and Narrative Devices
•    HAD BEEN + -ING for past duration
•    Use time markers, tension builders, flashbacks for storytelling
23.5 Complex Conditionals and Hypotheticals
•    Mixed conditionals: IF I HAD STUDIED, I WOULD BE A DOCTOR NOW
•    Hypotheticals: SUPPOSE, I WISH, IF ONLY, WHAT IF…
23.6 Modal Verbs in the Past
•    SHOULD HAVE, MIGHT HAVE, MUST HAVE to express regret, speculation, deduction
•    CAN’T HAVE and COULDN’T HAVE for strong negative assumptions
23.7 Nominalisation for Formal Style
•    Replace verbs/adjectives with nouns: DECIDE → DECISION
•    Improves formality and objectivity
23.8 Ellipsis, Substitution, Parallel Structures
•    Avoid repetition: SHE SINGS, AND HE DOES TOO
•    Use parallel grammar: SHE LIKES DANCING, SINGING, AND JOGGING
23.9 Advanced Sentence Combining Techniques
•    Combine with: AND, ALTHOUGH, WHO, WHILE EATING, WHOSE…
•    Creates variety, fluency, and style

✅ SELF-CHECK: CAN YOU…
•    ✔ Use inversion and cleft sentences to add focus?
•    ✔ Write clearly using future and past perfect forms?
•    ✔ Use mixed conditionals and past modals correctly?
•    ✔ Nominalise and structure ideas formally?
•    ✔ Combine sentences and avoid repetition naturally?

✍ FINAL WRITING PROMPT
Write 150–180 words on this topic:
“If you could go back in time and change one decision, what would it be and why?”
Try to use:
•    At least one mixed conditional
•    One cleft sentence
•    One example of inversion or nominalisation
•    Cohesive devices and clear structure